REPORTABLE 2025 INSC 1063 IN THE SUPREME COURT OF INDIA CIVIL APPELLATE JURISDICTION CIVIL APPEAL NO. 1385/2025 ANJUMAN ISHAAT-E-TALEEM TRUST … APPELLANT VS.

THE STATE OF MAHARASHTRA & OTHERS … RESPONDENTS WITH CIVIL APPEAL NO. 1386/2025, CIVIL APPEAL NOS.1364-1367/2025, CIVIL APPEAL NO.1389/2025, CIVIL APPEAL NO.1404/2025, CIVIL APPEAL NO.1395/2025, CIVIL APPEAL NOS.1396-1397/2025, CIVIL APPEAL NO.1405/2025, CIVIL APPEAL NO.1403/2025, CIVIL APPEAL NO.1398/2025, CIVIL APPEAL NOS.1406-1408/2025, CIVIL APPEAL NO.1393/2025, CIVIL APPEAL NO.1399/2025, Signature Not Verified Digitally signed by r D a a s t h e m : 2 i 0 d 2 h 5 ya .0 n 9 i . p 0 a 1 nt CIVIL APPEAL NO.1391/2025, 17:02:40 IST Reason:

CIVIL APPEAL NO.1401/2025, CIVIL APPEAL NO.1390/2025, CIVIL APPEAL NOS.1409-1410/2025, CIVIL APPEAL NO.6367/2025, CIVIL APPEAL NO.6365/2025, CIVIL APPEAL NO.6366/2025 AND CIVIL APPEAL NO.6364/2025

J U D G M E N T

DIPANKAR DATTA, J.

INDEX I. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................... 3 II. ORDERS PASSED BY THE RESPECTIVE HIGH COURTS, IMPUGNED IN THE APPEALS ........................... 6 IMPUGNED JUDGMENT IN THE LEAD APPEAL BEING CIVIL APPEAL NO. 1385 OF 2025 AND CIVIL APPEAL NO. 1386 OF 2025 ........................................................................................ 6 IMPUGNED JUDGMENT IN CIVIL APPEAL NOS. 6365 - 6367 OF 2025 ..................................... 7 IMPUGNED ORDER IN CIVIL APPEAL NOS. 1364 - 1367 OF 2025 ........................................... 8 IMPUGNED JUDGMENT IN CIVIL APPEAL NOS. 1389, 1390, 1391, 1393, 1395, 1396, 1397, 1398, 1399, 1401, 1403, 1404, 1405, 1406, 1407, 1408, 1409, 1410 OF 2025 ................................................................................................................................ 9 IMPUGNED JUDGMENT IN CIVIL APPEAL NO. 6364 OF 2025 ................................................... 12 SUMMARY OF THE JUDGMENTS .................................................................................................... 13 III. PREVIOUS DECISIONS CONCERNING THE RTE ACT .......................................................................... 14 SOCIETY FOR UNAIDED PRIVATE SCHOOLS OF RAJASTHAN ....................................................... 14 PRAMATI EDUCATIONAL AND CULTURAL TRUST V. UNION OF INDIA ........................................ 18 IV. ARGUMENTS OF THE PARTIES ............................................................................................................ 27 V. THE ACTS, RULES, REGULATIONS AND NOTIFICATIONS .................................................................. 40 VI. ANALYSIS AND REASONS .................................................................................................................. 45 A. FROM PROMISE TO RIGHT: THE CONSTITUTIONAL JOURNEY OF ARTICLE 21A AND THE RIGHT TO ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN INDIA ................................................................... 46 B. BREATHING LIFE INTO THE PROMISE: THE RTE ACT AND THE REALISATION OF ARTICLE 21A ............................................................................................................................. 51 C. THE CONSTITUTIONAL GOAL OF UNIVERSAL ELEMENTARY EDUCATION AND COMMON SCHOOLING SYSTEM ................................................................................................ 54 D. SECTION 12(1)(C), MINORITY INSTITUTIONS AND THE BEGINNING OF THE CONUNDRUM ............................................................................................................................ 56 E. THE COST OF EXCLUSION: CONSEQUENCES OF EXEMPTING MINORITY INSTITUTIONS FROM THE AMBIT OF THE RTE ACT .......................................................................................... 64 F. DOES ARTICLE 30(1) REALLY ENVISAGE BLANKET IMMUNITY FROM ALL FORMS OF REGULATION TO MINORITY INSTITUTIONS? .................................................