UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR THE SIXTH CIRCUIT

┐ ALLSTATES REFRACTORY CONTRACTORS, LLC, │ Plaintiff-Appellant, │ │ v. │ > No. 22-3772 │ JULIE A. SU, in her official capacity as Acting │ Secretary of Labor, U.S. Department of Labor; │ DOUGLAS L. PARKER, in his official capacity as │ Assistant Secretary of Labor for Occupational Safety │ and Health; OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY & HEALTH │ ADMINISTRATION, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR; │ UNITED STATES ATTORNEY FOR THE NORTHERN │ DISTRICT OF OHIO, │ Defendants-Appellees. │ ┘

Appeal from the United States District Court for the Northern District of Ohio at Toledo. No. 3:21-cv-01864—Jack Zouhary, District Judge.

Argued: April 27, 2023

Decided and Filed: August 23, 2023

Before: COOK, GRIFFIN, and NALBANDIAN, Circuit Judges. _________________

COUNSEL ARGUED: Brett A. Shumate, JONES DAY, Washington, D.C., for Appellant. Courtney L. Dixon, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE, Washington, D.C., for Appellees. ON BRIEF: Brett A. Shumate, John M. Gore, Anthony J. Dick, Brinton Lucas, JONES DAY, Washington, D.C., Christopher M. McLaughlin, JONES DAY, Cleveland, Ohio, J. Benjamin Aguiñaga, JONES DAY, Dallas, Texas, for Appellant. Courtney L. Dixon, Alisa B. Klein, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE, Washington, D.C., for Appellees. Michael Pepson, AMERICANS FOR PROSPERITY FOUNDATION, Arlington, Virginia, Timothy S. Bishop, Brett E. Legner, MAYER BROWN LLP, Chicago, Illinois, Jeffrey D. Jennings, LIBERTY JUSTICE CENTER, Chicago, Illinois, Sheng Li, NEW CIVIL LIBERTIES ALLIANCE, Washington, D.C., David C. Tryon, THE BUCKEYE INSTITUTE, Columbus, No. 22-3772 Allstates Refractory Contractors v. Su, et al. Page 2

Ohio, Oliver J. Dunford, PACIFIC LEGAL FOUNDATION, Palm Beach Gardens, Florida, Luke A. Wake, PACIFIC LEGAL FOUNDATION, Sacramento, California, Nicolas A. Sansone, Allison M. Zieve, PUBLIC CITIZEN LITIGATION GROUP, Washington, D.C., Pamela M. Newport, BRANSTETTER, STRANCH & JENNINGS, PLLC, Cincinnati, Ohio, Brianne J. Gorod, CONSTITUTIONAL ACCONTABILITY CENTER, Washington, D.C., Ben Seel, DEMOCRACY FORWARD FOUNDATION, Washington, D.C., Alex Hemmer, OFFICE OF THE ILLINOIS ATTORNEY GENERAL, Chicago, Illinois, Sean H. Donahue, DONAHUE & GOLDBERG, LLP, Washington, D.C., Ian Fein, NATURAL RESOURCES DEFENSE COUNCIL, San Francisco, California, Sanjay Narayan, SIERRA CLUB ENVIRONMENTAL LAW PROGRAM, Oakland, California, Craig Becker, AFL-CIO, Washington, D.C., Randy Rabinowitz, OSH LAW PROJECT, LLC, Washington, D.C., for Amici Curiae.

GRIFFIN, J., delivered the opinion of the court in which COOK, J., joined. NALBANDIAN, J. (pp. 16–44), delivered a separate dissenting opinion.

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OPINION _________________

GRIFFIN, Circuit Judge.

More than fifty years ago, Congress passed, and President Nixon signed into law, the Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) Act, 29 U.S.C. § 651 et seq. Throughout the next half century, challenges to the constitutionality of the Act h